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*🛡️Hydrogels*
♟️Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of water-soluble polymers that can absorb and retain a large amount of water without losing their structural integrity.
♟️They are super-soft and transparent materials that can shrink or swell when exposed to water.
♟️Hydrogels are made by crosslinking polymer chains through chemical reactions.
♟️Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA):
This was the first hydrogel material used in contact lenses, offering flexibility and comfort.
♟️Silicone Hydrogel Lenses:
These are a variation of hydrogel lenses that improve oxygen permeability, allowing for extended wear and increased comfort.
♟️Modified Hydrogels:
These are hydrogels that have been modified to enhance their properties, such as increasing water content and oxygen permeability.
*🛡️Council of Ministers in states*
♟️In a Parliamentary form of government, the council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister is the executive authority.
♟️The states under the Indian constitution are organised on the pattern as that of
the centre.
♟️The Council of Ministers in the state is a replica of the council of Ministers at the centre.
♟️They resemble in formation, function and role in the administration.
♟️The constitution provides a broad and general view of the principles of Parliamentary system of Government in Article 163 and Article 164 .
♟️Council of ministers are there to aid and advise the Governor of the state in various matters.
♟️In a Parliamentary form of government, the council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister is the executive authority.
♟️The states under the Indian constitution are organised on the pattern as that of
the centre.
♟️The Council of Ministers in the state is a replica of the council of Ministers at the centre.
♟️They resemble in formation, function and role in the administration.
♟️The constitution provides a broad and general view of the principles of Parliamentary system of Government in Article 163 and Article 164 .
♟️Council of ministers are there to aid and advise the Governor of the state in various matters.
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*10 Key Constitutional Amendments*
1. *1st Amendment Act, 1951*
• Restricted freedom of speech (Art. 19)
• Enabled land reforms, added 9th Schedule
2. *42nd Amendment Act, 1976 (Mini-Constitution)*
• Added “Socialist, Secular” to Preamble
• Curtailed judicial review, strengthened Centre
• During The Emergency
3. *44th Amendment Act, 1978*
• Reversed excesses of 42nd Amendment
• Restored Fundamental Rights protection
• Made Right to Property a legal (not fundamental) right
4. *52nd Amendment Act, 1985*
• Introduced Anti-Defection Law
• Added 10th Schedule
5. *61st Amendment Act, 1988*
• Reduced voting age from 21 → 18
6. *73rd & 74th Amendments, 1992*
• Gave constitutional status to Panchayats & Municipalities
• Strengthened local self-government
• Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s vision
7. *86th Amendment Act, 2002*
• Made Right to Education (6–14 years) a Fundamental Right (Art. 21A)
8. *99th Amendment Act, 2014*
• Created NJAC for judicial appointments
• Struck down by SC (violated Basic Structure)
9. *101st Amendment Act, 2016*
• Introduced GST (Goods & Services Tax)
• Created “One Nation, One Tax”
10. *103rd Amendment Act, 2019*
• Introduced 10% EWS reservation
• Based on economic criteria
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*🛡️Space Debris*
♟️Space Debris (also called space junk or orbital debris) refers to all man-made objects in space that are no longer useful but still orbit the Earth.
*💎Main Sources*
*♟️1. Defunct satellites –* Old satellites that no longer work.
*♟️2. Rocket parts –* Stages or fragments left behind after launches.
*♟️3. Collision fragments –* Pieces created when satellites or rockets collide.
*♟️4. Mission-related objects –* Bolts, metal pieces, or tools left during missions.
*💎Dangers*
*♟️Damage to active satellites –* Debris can crash into working satellites.
*♟️Risk to astronauts –* Even tiny fragments can harm the International Space Station (ISS).
*♟️Kessler Syndrome –* A chain reaction where collisions create more debris, making space too dangerous.
*💎Solutions*
*♟️Graveyard orbit or re-entry –* Moving old satellites into a safer orbit or burning them up in Earth’s atmosphere.
*♟️Active Debris Removal (ADR) –* Using nets, robotic arms, or lasers to clear junk.
*♟️New space rules –* Agencies now design missions to reduce future debris.
*♟️In Short,* space debris = old satellites + rocket parts + fragments that make space operations risky.
*🛡️Nehru Report: Key Highlights (1928)*
♟️Dominion Status within the British Empire with a parliamentary system
♟️Bicameral legislature: A Senate and a House of Representatives
♟️Governor-General to act solely on the advice of the Executive Council
♟️Federal structure, with residuary powers resting with the Centre
♟️No separate electorates for minorities to curb communal divisions
♟️No communal weightage system to be applied in any province
♟️No reserved seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal; only in select provinces if necessary
♟️Judiciary to remain independent of Executive interference
♟️Muslim representation at the Centre to be fixed at 25%
♟️Sindh to be separated from Bombay Presidency, if financially viable
♟️Political reforms to extend to the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP)
🛡️ *Saraswati River*
♟️The river is mentioned over 80 times in the Rigveda and is believed to have dried up more than 5,000 years ago due to climatic and tectonic shifts.
♟️It originated in the Himalayas and flowed through Haryana, Rajasthan, North Gujarat, and Pakistan before reaching the Gulf at the Western Sea, spanning approximately 4,000 km.
♟️The river had two branches—western and eastern—that joined at Shatrana, 25 km south of Patiala.
♟️The western branch, represented by the ancient Satluj, flowed through the channels of the present-day Ghaggar-Patialiwali rivulets.
♟️The eastern branch, supported by the Markanda and Sarsuti rivers, is now known as the Tons-Yamuna rivers.