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How many types of chlorophyll have scientists discovered for the moment?
ℹ️ The chlorophyll molecule is a chlorin pigment with magnesium at the center of the chlorin ring.
For the moment researchers have identified 5️⃣ closely related chlorophylls:
🟢 chlorophyll a is the main light-harvesting pigment present in all photosynthetic organisms (higher plants, red algae, green algae). Its molecular formula is: C55H72O5N4Mg. It is best at absorbing photons at 400-450 nm and 650-700 nm.
🟢 chlorophyll b is present in higher plants and green algae and functions as a light-harvesting pigment that passes on the light excitation to chlorophyll a. Its molecular formula is C55H70O6N4Mg. It is best at absorbing photons at 450-500 nm and 600-650 nm.
🟢 chlorophyll c is an accessory pigment found in certain marine algae (diatoms, dinoflagellates, brown algae). Its molecular formula is C35H28O5N4Mg. It is best at absorbing photons at 447-452 nm.
🟢 chlorophyll d is the form found in photosynthetic organisms thriving in moderately deep water (red algae, cyanobacteria - blue-green algae). Its molecular formula is C54H70O6N4Mg. It is best at absorbing infrared light.
🟢 chlorophyll e is an accessory pigment and a rare type, isolated from very few algal species, such as in some golden algae. No sufficient information is available about this type of chlorophyll, including the chemical structure and molecular formula.
🟢 chlorophyll f is present in aquatic organisms (cyanobacteria) that enable the absorption of near-infrared light. Its molecular formula is C55H70O6N4Mg.
All of them reflect the green light. However, there are slight differences. For instance, they differ slightly in their structure causing them to appear in different shades of green. Chlorophyll a, in particular, is a blue-green pigment whereas chlorophyll b is a yellow-green pigment.
For land plants, the main chlorophyll pigments are chlorophyll a and b. Chlorophyll a, however, is the type of chlorophyll that can convert light energy and thus participates directly in the light reaction of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll b, in contrast, can absorb light energy but eventually relays the energy to chlorophyll a. Because of this, chlorophyll a is the most predominant form of chlorophyll pigment and explains why it is depicted as universal, meaning it is present in all photosynthetic organisms. Nevertheless, chlorophyll b is essential in boosting the efficacy of photosynthesis.
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What are two major stages of photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis can be broken down into 2️⃣ major stages: light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions.
1️⃣ The light-dependent reaction takes place within the thylakoid membrane and requires a steady stream of sunlight, hence its name. The chlorophyll absorbs energy from the light waves, which is converted into chemical energy in the form of the molecules ATP and NADPH.
2️⃣ The light-independent stage takes place in the stroma, the space between the thylakoid membranes and the chloroplast membranes, and does not require light, hence its the name. During this three-step stage, energy from the ATP and NADPH molecules is used to assemble carbohydrate molecules, like glucose, from carbon dioxide. So, this stage is the process that generates sugars for the plant. It is also known as the Calvin Cycle ⬆️, named after Melvin Calvin (1911-1997), the Nobel Prize-winning scientist who discovered it.
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What does most life on Earth depend on?
Most life on our planet depends on the process called photosynthesis.
This process is carried out by plants, algae, and some types of bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to produce oxygen (O2) and chemical energy stored in glucose (a sugar). Herbivores then obtain this energy by eating plants, and carnivores obtain it by eating herbivores.
During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) from the air and soil. Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose. The plant then releases the oxygen back into the air, and stores energy within the glucose molecules.
Look at this video ⬆️ how the oxygen is released by a leaf during photosynthesis.
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⁉️ What are the only two mammals that lay eggs?
✅ Only two kinds of egg-laying mammals are left on the planet today—the duck-billed platypus and the echidna, or spiny anteater. These odd “monotremes” once dominated Australia, until their pouch-bearing cousins, the marsupials, invaded the land down under 71 million to 54 million years ago and swept them away.
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⁉️ Why is the wedding ring worn on the ring finger?
✅ According to a tradition believed to have been derived from the Romans, the wedding ring is worn on the left hand ring finger because there was thought to be a vein in the finger, referred to as the 'Vena Amoris' or the 'Vein of Love' said to be directly connected to the heart.
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⁉️ How long can a Nile crocodile hold its breath?
✅ They normally dive for only a few minutes, but will stay underwater for up to 30 minutes if threatened, and if they remain inactive they can hold their breath for up to two hours.
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⁉️ Why are the nuclei of some atoms unstable?
✅ In some atoms the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus together, and the nuclei of these atoms are said to be unstable. Unstable atoms will lose neutrons and protons as they attempt to become stable
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⁉️ Are doves and pigeons the same thing?
✅ Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae, which includes about 310 species.
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills (and in some species, these bills feature fleshy ceres). They primarily feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. This family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones.
In general, the terms "dove" and "pigeon" are used somewhat interchangeably. Pigeon is a French word that derives from the Latin pipio, for a "peeping" chick, while dove is a Germanic word that refers to the bird's diving flight.
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⁉️ Are sea cucumbers animals or plants?
✅ Sea cucumbers are part of a larger animal group called Echinodermata, which also contains starfish and sea urchins. Their body shape is similar to a cucumber, but they have small tentacle-like tube feet that are used for locomotion and feeding.
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⁉️ Which river rises in the Black Forest and flows into the Black Sea?
✅ The river rises in the Black Forest Mountains of Germany and flows eastward into the Black Sea. The Danube River is an important international waterway, flowing through or forming a part of the borders of ten countries and through major cities such as Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, and Belgrade.
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What types of photosynthesis do plants use ?
There are 3️⃣ main types of photosynthetic pathways: C3, C4 and CAM. They all produce sugars from CO2 using the Calvin cycle, but each pathway is slightly different.
🟩 Most plants use C3 photosynthesis, named for the three-carbon compound 3-PGA that it uses during the Calvin cycle. C3 plants include cereals (wheat and rice), cotton, potatoes and soybeans.
🟩 Plants such as maize and sugarcane use C4 photosynthesis. This process uses a four-carbon compound intermediate (called oxaloacetate) which is converted to malate. Malate is then transported into the bundle sheath where it breaks down and releases CO2, which is then fixed by rubisco and made into sugars in the Calvin cycle (just like C3 photosynthesis). C4 plants are better adapted to hot, dry environments and can continue to fix carbon even when their stomata are closed (as they have a clever storage solution).
🟩 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is found in plants adapted to very hot and dry environments, such as cacti and pineapples. When stomata open to take in CO2, they risk losing water to the external environment. Because of this, plants in very arid and hot environments have adapted. One adaptation is CAM, whereby plants open stomata at night (when temperatures are lower and water loss is less of a risk).CO2 enters the plants via the stomata and is fixed into oxaloacetate and converted into malate or another organic acid (like in the C4 pathway). The CO2 is then available for light-dependent reactions in the daytime, and stomata close, reducing the risk of water loss.
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Why are most plants green?
🌿 Plants are perceived as green because of their pigments.
ℹ️ In essence, a pigment means a coloring material; it is a dye, a paint. But in biology, a pigment, by definition, refers to a colored substance naturally produced by an organism.
🌿 Inside the plant cell are small organelles called chloroplasts, which store the energy of sunlight. Within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast is a light-absorbing pigment called chlorophyll.
🇫🇷 🔬🧪 French pharmacists, Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre Joseph Pelletier, coined the term “chlorophyll” in 1817 (Greek “chloros”, meaning “green” and “phyllon”, meaning “leaf”).
🌿 It’s chlorophyll which is responsible for giving the plant its green color. The chlorophyll pigments do not absorb well the green wavelength of the visible light, but do absorb well blue and red light. During photosynthesis, chlorophyll reflects green-light waves, which reach our eyes and so we perceive plants as green.
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⁉️ How fast is terminal velocity of a bullet?
✅ Hatcher calculated that his .30-caliber rifle bullets reached terminal velocity—the speed at which air resistance balances the accelerating force of gravity—at 300 feet per second. You might die from a bullet moving at that speed, but it's unlikely.
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⁉️ How do snakes hear if they dont have ears?
✅ When people and most animals hear, sound waves strike the eardrum and go to the inner ear, which is sensitive to the sound waves or vibrations. Snakes do not have eardrums, but their skins, muscles, and bones carry the sound waves to the inner ears.
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⁉️ Is Greenland larger than Australia?
✅ The Mercator projection portrays Greenland as larger than Australia; in actuality, Australia is more than three and a half times larger than Greenland. As on all map projections, shapes or sizes are distortions of the true layout of the Earth's surface. The Mercator projection exaggerates areas far from the equator.
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⁉️ What does CT stand for in medical terms?
✅ CT, or CAT as they're pronounced, stands for "computerized axial tomography." In a CT scan, the patient lies on a table that slides into a scanning machine. Inside, an x-ray beam rotates around the body while detectors measure how much of the x-rays pass through the tissues and organs, indicating density.
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⁉️ How much does the temperature change with altitude?
✅ Although the actual atmospheric lapse rate varies, under normal atmospheric conditions the average atmospheric lapse rate results in a temperature decrease of 6.4C°/km (3.5F°/1,000 ft) of altitude above ground level. The measurable lapse rate is affected by the moisture content of the air (humidity).
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⁉️ How many teeth does an elephant have?
✅ Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars. Unlike most mammals, which grow baby teeth and then replace them with a single permanent set of adult teeth, elephants are polyphyodonts that have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their lives.
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⁉️ What is the instrument used to measure earthquakes?
✅ Seismometers are instruments that measure motions of the ground, including those of seismic waves generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other seismic sources. Records of seismic waves allow seismologists to map the interior of the Earth, and locate and measure the size of these different sources.
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⁉️ When do ears and nose stop growing?
✅ Bones, stop growing after puberty and muscle and fat cells also stop dividing. But cartilage - that's the plastic-like stuff in ears and noses - cartilage continues to grow until the day you die. Not only does cartilage grow, but the earlobes elongate from gravity. And that makes ears look even larger.
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