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How to explain the Six Handshakes Rule?
❇️This rule has a formula that establishes that each person in the world may know 100 people in average.
❇️If each one of your 100 acquaintances is connected somehow to another 100 people, then, the number would increase to 10,000 in the second link in the chain.
❇️In the third link you could increase the number of people you could possibly meet to 1,000,000 and 100,000,000 in the fourth link.
❇️In the fifth one, you would reach 10,000,000,000 people and 1,000,000,000,000 people in the sixth level.
✅⬆️This amount far exceeds the total population of the planet, so the relationships that the members of the chain have in common could be compensated without problems.
ℹ️This formula considers that, of your 100 personal connections, none might have a mutual connection with the 10,000. It is not the case in the real world, but it’s quite likely for your acquaintances to be connected to more than 100 people. So, this would balance it all.
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Can AI really pass the Turing test?
One of John McCarthy’s objectives was that a computer would pass the Turing test.
❎❓ According to most computer scientists and AI researchers, to date, no computer has decidedly passed the Turing test. Nevertheless, there have been some convincing contenders.
ℹ️ In 2018, Google unveiled an informal Turing test when he published a video of the company’s virtual assistant, called Duplex, calling a hair salon and successfully booking an appointment. The woman who answered the phone seemed to have no idea she was talking to a computer.
✅ So, it looks like today’s AI algorithms can pass the Turing test in some way.
❗️ However, for many modern researchers, the question of whether or not a computer can pass this test has become irrelevant. Instead of focusing on how to convince someone to talk to a human, rather than the computer program, they think that our real focus should be on how to make human-computer interaction as smooth as possible.
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What is the Touring test?
In an essay “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”, published in 1950, the English mathematician and computer pioneer Alan Turing proposed the Turing test.
The test is performed by placing a human in one room and a machine in another. Then a judge, or panel of judges, addresses each room with questions regarding any topic to which a human should be able to respond.
Originally called the Imitation game, this test examines whether humans can tell if they are talking to a machine or a human and has become one of the most important milestones in the research and development of artificial intelligence.
ℹ️ Alongside John McCarthy, Alan Turing (1912-1954) is also seen as a founder of AI and often called the "father of computer science". His Touring machine provided the concepts of algorithm and computation that led to general-purpose computers. Named after him, the Touring Award is the highest distinction in computer science.
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What are differences between AI, machine learning and deep learning?
📌 AI, machine learning and deep learning are common terms in enterprise IT and sometimes used interchangeably, but there are distinctions.
📌 Both deep learning and machine learning are sub-fields of artificial intelligence, and deep learning is actually a sub-field of machine learning.
📌 Machine learning enables software applications to become more accurate at predicting outcomes without being explicitly programmed to do so. Machine learning algorithms use historical data as input to predict new output values. This approach became vastly more effective with the rise of large data sets to train on.
📌 Deep learning is based on our understanding of how the brain is structured. Unlike machine learning, it doesn't require human intervention to process data. Deep learning's use of artificial neural networks structure is the underpinning of recent advances in AI, including self-driving cars and ChatGPT.
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How Many Types of Artificial Intelligence are there?
According to scientists, there are 4️⃣ types of AI:
• Type 1️⃣: Reactive machines. These AI systems have no memory and are task-specific. Nevertheless, computer chess programs, which are examples of these systems, can beat human chess masters.
• Type 2️⃣: Limited memory. These AI systems have memory, so they can use past experiences to inform future decisions. Some of the decision-making functions in self-driving cars are designed this way.
• Type 3️⃣: Theory of mind is a psychology term. When applied to AI, it means the system would have the social intelligence to understand emotions, to infer human intentions and predict behavior. It will be a necessary skill for AI systems to become integral members of human teams.
• Type 4️⃣: Self-awareness. In this category, AI systems have a sense of self, which gives them consciousness. This type of AI does not yet exist.
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Who is the father of AI?
ℹ️ The term “artificial intelligence” is coined in a Proposal for the Dartmouth summer research project on artificial intelligence submitted on the 31st of August 1955 by a group of researchers.
🎂The workshop, which took place in July-August 1956, is considered as the official birthdate of AI.
🔺John McCarthy (1927-2011)⬆️, a prominent computer scientist, is recognized as the father of AI.
🔺He created Lisp, a standard programming language widely employed in robotics, various applications and services, and also worked on such innovations as self-driving car, robot consciousness and computer data sharing.
🔺After years of research, McCarthy offered the following definition of AI:
“It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence, AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.”
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What are types of algorithms?
ℹ️✍️ There are several types of algorithms available.
1️⃣1️⃣ important algorithms are:
🔹 Brute Force Algorithm: a straightforward approach that exhaustively tries all possible solutions, suitable for small problem instances but may become impractical for larger ones due to its high time complexity.
🔹 Recursive Algorithm: a method that breaks a problem into smaller, similar subproblems and repeatedly applies itself to solve them until reaching a base case, making it effective for tasks with recursive structures.
🔹 Encryption Algorithm: utilized to transform data into a secure, unreadable form using cryptographic techniques, ensuring confidentiality and privacy in digital communications and transactions.
🔹 Backtracking Algorithm: a trial-and-error technique used to explore potential solutions by undoing choices when they lead to an incorrect outcome, commonly employed in puzzles and optimization problems.
🔹 Searching Algorithm: designed to find a specific target within a dataset, enabling efficient retrieval of information from sorted or unsorted collections.
🔹 Sorting Algorithm: aimed at arranging elements in a specific order, like numerical or alphabetical, to enhance data organization and retrieval.
🔹 Hashing Algorithm: converts data into a fixed-size hash value, enabling rapid data access and retrieval in hash tables, commonly used in databases and password storage.
🔹 Divide and Conquer Algorithm: breaks a complex problem into smaller subproblems, solves them independently, and then combines their solutions to address the original problem effectively.
🔹 Greedy Algorithm: makes locally optimal choices at each step in the hope of finding a global optimum, useful for optimization problems but may not always lead to the best solution.
🔹 Dynamic Programming Algorithm: stores and reuses intermediate results to avoid redundant computations, enhancing the efficiency of solving complex problems.
🔹 Randomized Algorithm: utilizes randomness in its steps to achieve a solution, often used in situations where an approximate or probabilistic answer suffices.
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How do humans and computers perform tasks?
🔸 To perform many everyday tasks, humans use sets of instructions carried out in a specific order.
🔸 For example, when cooking, to prepare a delicious meal and not to spoil it, one must follow a certain set of steps in a particular order ⬆️.
🔸 Such a finite set of instructions, which must be executed in a specific order to accomplish a particular task, is defined as an algorithm.
🔸 In science, algorithms help perform calculations or other problem-solving operations. It is not the entire program or code; it is the simple logic to a problem represented as an informal description in the form of a flowchart or pseudocode. It is often depicted as blocks of various shapes – input, processing unit and output ⬆️.
🔸 A cooking recipe is a simple algorithm, but an algorithm can also be complex, depending on what its final output is.
🔸 Modern computers use algorithms to calculate things faster and more efficiently than humans can.
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What are Circadian Rhythms?
Circadian rhythms work by helping to make sure that the body’s processes are optimized at various points during a 24-hour period.
🌝🌚 The term circadian comes from the Latin phrase “circa diem,” which means “around a day.”
Circadian rhythms exist in all types of organisms. They help flowers open and close at the right time and keep nocturnal animals from leaving their shelter during the daytime when they would be exposed to more predators.
In people, circadian rhythms coordinate mental and physical systems throughout the body. They are connected to an internal clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is in a part of hypothalamus in the brain and is highly sensitive to light.
ℹ️ A circadian rhythm is an effect of a biological clock, but not all biological clocks are circadian, e.g. plants adjust to changing seasons using a biological clock with timing that is distinct from a 24-hour cycle.
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What causes insomnia?
Researchers suggest that in many people insomnia likely results from certain types of physiological arousal at unwanted times, disrupting normal patterns of sleep, e.g. a heightened heart rate, a higher body temperature, increased levels of hormones, like cortisol.
A person’s family history, age, and gender may also play a role in their susceptibility to insomnia.
Insomnia often occurs alongside mental health disorders, including depression and anxiety. It is believed that the cause of insomnia may be distinct in people who have both insomnia and mental health conditions.
Risk factors for insomnia are:
✔️older age
✔️pregnancy
✔️medical conditions (diabetes, chronic pain)
✔️neurological problems
✔️other sleep disorders
✔️mood disorders
✔️socioeconomic status
✔️stress and lifestyle
❗️ It is important to note that not everyone who has one or more of these risk factors ⬆️ will have insomnia, and not everyone with insomnia will have one of these risk factors.
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At which stage of sleep are we dreaming?
Dreaming typically occurs during Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
REM is the final stage of sleep that occurs about 90 minutes after you fall asleep.
As the name suggests, your eyes will move back and forth rather quickly under your eyelids. Breathing rate, heart rate, and blood pressure will begin to increase. Arms and legs will become paralyzed – it’s believed this is intended to prevent you from physically acting out on your dreams.
The duration of each REM sleep cycle increases as the night progresses.
Numerous studies have also linked REM sleep to memory consolidation the process of converting recently learned experiences into long-term memories.
The duration of the REM stage will decrease as you age, causing you to spend more time in the NREM stages.
ℹ️ You may also wake up briefly during the night but not remember the next day. These episodes are known as “W” stages.
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Why do we need to sleep?
😴 Sleep is an essential function that allows human’s body and mind to recharge. Healthy sleep also helps the body remain healthy and stave off diseases.
😴 Without enough sleep, the brain cannot function properly. This can impair your abilities to concentrate, think clearly, and process memories. Recent findings suggest that sleep plays a housekeeping role by removing toxins in our brain that build up while we are awake.
😴 Most adults require at least seven hours of nightly sleep. Children and teenagers need substantially more sleep, particularly if they are younger than five years of age.
😴 Work schedules, day-to-day stressors, a disruptive bedroom environment, and medical conditions can all prevent us from receiving enough sleep. A healthy diet and positive lifestyle habits can help ensure an adequate amount of sleep each night.
😴 The average person spends about 26 years sleeping which represents approximately one-third of our life.
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How to measure gravity on different planets?
🌎On Earth, falling objects experience an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 due to Earth's gravitational force (GF), and that is defined as 1 g.
The easiest way to measure the GF on other planets in the Solar System is to express it as a fraction of Earth's g-force.
Jupiter is the largest planet, and it has the largest GF.
The reasoning doesn't extend the other way, though.
Mercury is the smallest planet, but its surface gravity is about the same as that of the much larger Mars because Mercury is more dense.
Similarly, Saturn is much larger but less dense than Earth, so the GF on 🪐 is about the same as it is on 🌍.
The gravity you would experience on different planets is:
• Mercury: 0.38 g
• Venus: 0.9 g
• Moon: 0.17 g
• Mars: 0.38 g
• Jupiter: 2.53 g
• Saturn: 1.07 g
• Uranus: 0.89 g
• Neptune: 1.14 g
• Pluto: 0.063 g
🤩Enjoy this visualization of gravity on different planets and the Sun using cars falling to the divider.
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Which force is the strongest of the fundamental forces?
☢️💪 As suggested by its name, the strong nuclear force, or strong force for short, is the strongest of the fundamental forces.
❗️It is about 100 times stronger than electromagnetism and 100 trillion trillion trillion times stronger than gravity.
☢️⚛️ The strong force holds together the building blocks of atoms. It always attracts and works at two different size scales in atoms. At the level of an atomic nucleus, the strong force holds together the protons and neutrons that form the essence of the elements. On an even smaller scale, the strong force holds together the oppositely charged quarks that make up the neutrons and protons themselves.
ℹ️ However, the strong force only has influence over very small distances. For anything larger than the nucleus of a medium-sized atom (about 100 million times smaller than the width of a human hair), its influence quickly drops and other forces will be stronger.
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What is gravity?
According to the general theory of relativity, gravity can be understood as bends and curves in the fabric of space-time that affect the motions of galaxies, stars, planets, and even light.
Anything with mass makes a dent in space-time, causing objects to be attracted to each other.
It is the force of attraction that draws two objects together. Its strength increases along with the masses of the two objects, but decreases at a rate of the square of the distance between them.
That means that if the Moon were twice its current distance from the Earth, the gravitational tug between the two would be just one fourth of what it is now.
Gravity turns out to be the weakest of the fundamental forces of nature, especially at the molecular and atomic scales.
Gravity works across infinite distances, making it responsible for the formation of the universe.
The legend has it that Isaac Newton’s idea of gravity came about as a result of observing an apple fall from a tree.
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What is the Six Degrees of Separation?
ℹ️ The Six Degrees of Separation is the idea that all people are connected with each other by at most six social connections.
✔️ It was originally set out by Hungarian writer Frigyes Karinthy (1887-1938) in 1929. Theories based on the idea were already discussed before him, but it was Karinthy who published a story called the “Chain-Links”. In this story, he particularly tells that the modern world was ‘shrinking’ due to this ever-increasing connectedness of human beings and that any two individuals in the world could be connected through at most five acquaintances.
✔️ Today, this concept is also known as “The Six Handshakes Rule/Theory”. It was put forward in 1969 by two American psychologists: Stanley Milgram and Geoffrey Travers. They conducted a “Small-world experiment” in 2 cities with 300 envelopes that participants handed only over to acquaintances. The conclusion was that each envelope went through six hands.
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Can machines think?
❓🤖💭That was the question Alan Turing ⬆️posed at the top of his landmark 1950 paper, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.” It was a time when rudimentary electronic computers were just starting to emerge.
Turing realized that his test was not designed to determine whether a computer can “think.” After all, it might be fundamentally impossible to know what’s happening in the “mind” of a computer, and even if computers do think, the process might be fundamentally different from the human brain.
❓↔️❓That’s why Turing replaced his original question with one we can answer: “Are there imaginable computers which would do well in the imitation game?” This question established a measurable standard for assessing the sophistication of computers over the past seven decades.
🆒According to modern scientists, the new question was also a clever way of sidestepping the philosophical questions associated with defining words like “intelligence” and “think”.
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If a machine can learn, can it dream?
A visual artist Refik Anadol tried to answer this question, using AI, together with the Philadelphia Orchestra.
A 12/meter (40-foot) tall digital screen with 8.2 million pixels, each controlled by AI, was installed on the stage.
As the orchestra played Beethoven’s “Missa Solemnis,” the screen came alive with swirls and cascades of color.
The system used fluid dynamics algorithms to generate animation effects resembling flowing water and wind through hair. For this performance, Anadol “taught” his system by feeding it thousands of images of Renaissance art and architecture, the kind of aesthetics that Beethoven himself would have been consuming when he wrote his celebrated works.
The developer didn’t give his artificial intelligence machine an anthropomorphic name, but refered to it as a “thinking paintbrush.”
The performance that used AI technologies was nevertheless negatively received by many musical critics.
Have a look ⬆️.
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What are real-world AI applications?
Here are some of the most used real-world applications of AI:
✔️Speech recognition: Also known as automatic speech recognition (ASR), computer speech recognition, or speech-to-text, it is a capability which uses natural language processing (NLP) to process human speech into a written format, e.g. in mobile devices.
✔️Customer service: Online virtual/voice assistants are replacing human agents to answer frequently asked questions (FAQs) around topics, like shipping, or provide personalized advice.
✔️Computer vision enables systems in social media, healthcare, and automotive industry to derive meaningful information from digital visual inputs and, unlike image recognition tasks, to provide recommendations.
✔️Recommendation engines can help retailers to develop more effective past consumption cross-selling strategies.
✔️Automated stock trading: AI-driven high-frequency trading platforms make trades without human intervention.
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What is the AI of today and that of the future?
🔲 Most of the AI that surrounds us today is trained and focused to perform specific tasks. Researchers call this AI weak or narrow - Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI). ‘Narrow’ might be a more accurate descriptor for such AI systems as they are anything but weak; enabling some very robust applications, and autonomous vehicles.
🔳 The AI of the future is called strong and is made up of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) and Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI).
AGI is a theoretical form of AI where a machine would have an intelligence equaled to humans and a self-aware consciousness in order to learn and plan.
ASI—or superintelligence—would surpass the intelligence and ability of the human brain. In the meantime, the best examples of ASI might be from science fiction.
❗️According to researchers, there is a 50% chance of AI outperforming humans in all tasks in 45 years and of automating all human jobs in 120 years.
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What is artificial intelligence (AI)?
🧠🤖Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems.
AI systems work by ingesting large amounts of labeled training data, analyzing the data for correlations and patterns, and using these patterns to make predictions about future states.
AI programming focuses on cognitive skills that include the following:
▪️Learning: acquiring data and creating rules for how to turn it into actionable information. The rules – algorithms – provide computing devices with step-by-step instructions for how to complete a specific task.
▪️Reasoning: choosing the right algorithm to reach a desired outcome.
▪️Self-correction is designed to continually fine-tune algorithms and ensure they provide the most accurate results possible.
▪️Creativity uses neural networks, rules-based systems, statistical methods and other AI techniques to generate new images, new text, new music and new ideas.
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What is needed for instructions to be an algorithm?
❗️ Not all written instructions for programming are an algorithm.
✍️ For some instructions to be an algorithm, it must have the following characteristics:
✔️ Clear and Unambiguous
The algorithm should be unambiguous. Each of its steps should be clear in all aspects and must lead to only one meaning.
✔️ Well-Defined Inputs
If an algorithm says to take inputs, it should be well-defined inputs. It may or may not take input.
✔️ Well-Defined Outputs
The algorithm must clearly define what output will be yielded and it should be well-defined as well. It should produce at least one output.
✔️ Finite-ness
The algorithm must be finite, i.e. it should terminate after a finite time.
✔️ Feasible
The algorithm must be simple, generic, and practical, such that it can be executed with the available resources. It must not contain some future technology or anything.
✔️ Language Independent
The algorithm designed must be language-independent, i.e. it must be just plain instructions that can be implemented in any language, and yet the output will be the same, as expected.
✔️ Input
An algorithm has zero or more inputs. Each that contains a fundamental operator must accept zero or more inputs.
✔️ Output
An algorithm produces at least one output. Every instruction that contains a fundamental operator must accept zero or more inputs.
✔️Definiteness
All instructions in an algorithm must be unambiguous, precise, and easy to interpret. By referring to any of the instructions in an algorithm one can clearly understand what is to be done. Every fundamental operator in instruction must be defined without any ambiguity.
✔️ Finiteness
An algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps in all test cases. Every instruction that contains a fundamental operator must be terminated within a finite amount of time. Infinite loops or recursive functions without base conditions do not possess finiteness.
✔️ Effectiveness
An algorithm must be developed by using very basic, simple, and feasible operations so that one can trace it out by using just paper and pencil.
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Why Circadian Rhythms are important?
⏰ The sleep-wake cycle is one of the most clear and critical examples of the importance of circadian rhythms.
🌝⏰🌚 During the day, light exposure causes the internal clock to send signals that generate alertness and help keep us awake and active. As night falls, the internal clock initiates the production of melatonin and then keeps transmitting signals that help us stay asleep through the night. In this way, circadian rhythms align sleep and wakefulness with day and night to create a stable cycle of restorative rest that enables increased daytime activity.
✅⏰😴 When properly aligned, a circadian rhythm can promote consistent and restorative sleep.
⚠️🆘😟 But when it is thrown off, it can create significant sleep problems, including insomnia.
❗️ℹ️ These 24-hour cycles play a vital role in virtually all systems of the body. Research is revealing their importance for metabolism, immune system and other aspects of physical and mental health.
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What helps us to fall asleep when it is getting dark?
When it is getting dark, human’s body starts to produce a hormone called melatonin.
It is a hormone created by the pineal gland in the brain that is released into the bloodstream.
Darkness prompts the pineal gland to start producing melatonin, while light causes it to stop.
That’s why melatonin is known as the sleep hormone helping to synchronize the sleep-wake cycle with night and day, facilitating a transition to sleep and promoting consistent, quality rest.
Melatonin created within the body is endogenous melatonin, but it can also be produced externally. Exogenous melatonin is normally made synthetically, and as a dietary supplement.
❗️ There is however very little data about the long-term effects of melatonin supplements in children or adults.
‼️ There is also debate about whether melatonin is beneficial in otherwise healthy adults who have insomnia.
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What is insomnia and its symptons?
Insomnia is defined as difficulty either falling or staying asleep that is accompanied by daytime impairments.
🌚 Nighttime insomnia symptoms can include trouble sleeping and early waking.
🌞 Daytime insomnia symptoms may include fatigue, impaired memory, and irritability.
The 2️⃣ main types of insomnia are:
▪️acute insomnia that lasts not longer than three months and can often be traced to an external cause or life stressors
▪️chronic insomnia when a person experiences sleeping difficulties at least three days per week for longer than three months.
It is estimated that about 10% to 15% of people have chronic insomnia.
Common sleep issues that can be symptoms of insomnia are:
• Trouble falling asleep
• Trouble staying asleep throughout the night
• Unwanted early morning waking
• Resisting sleeping at bedtime in children and teens
• Difficulty sleeping without a caregiver’s help in children and teens
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What is NREM sleep?
A sleep is divided into 4️⃣ stages repeating cyclically throughout the night. The duration of each cycle is 90-120 min.
The first 3️⃣ stages are known as non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep:
Stage 1️⃣ NREM typically lasts several minutes, marks the transition between wakefulness and sleep. Muscles relax and heart rate, breathing, eye movements and brain waves begin to slow down.
Stage 2️⃣ NREM is the longest and is characterized by deeper sleep as processes in our organism continue slowing down. Body temperature decreases. Apart from some brief moments of higher frequency electrical activity, brain waves also remain slow.
Stage 3️⃣ NREM plays an important role in making you feel refreshed the next day. All vital processes reach their lowest levels, and the muscles are as relaxed as they will be. This stage will be longer at first and decrease in duration throughout the night.
ℹ️ NREM sleep constitutes 75-80% of each cycle.
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Does zero gravity exist?
🔹Contrary to popular belief, there’s no such thing as zero gravity.
🔹Weightlessness and zero gravity are two different things.
🔹While we’re on Earth 🌏, we feel our weight because, as the Earth’s gravity pulls us into its center, the ground pushes back against our feet.
🔹When spacemen orbit the earth, they’re still subject to gravity, but they’re moving sideways so quickly that even though they’re being pulled toward the earth, they’re not getting any closer to the planet’s center. In other words, they’re basically in a state of constant free fall, and that’s why they’re weightless.
🔹Gravity never disappears entirely, it just gets weaker. And every object with mass has gravitational attraction, but when one of the objects is much larger than the other, its mass predominates.
🔹So, moving away won’t free you of the Earth’s gravity. All that would happen is that the Earth’s pull would be masked by the pull of some other object.
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Which force acts at subatomic levels?
🔄 It is the weak nuclear force that is responsible for interactions between subatomic particles – the building blocks for matter, like protons, neutrons, and electrons.
🔺🔻Protons and neutrons are made of two quark varieties, up and down. This force can turn a down quark in a neutron into an up quark, which would change the neutron into a proton and switch its electric charge from neutral to positive. If that neutron were in the nucleus of an atom, the change to a proton would turn that atom into a different type of element. Such reactions are happening all the time in our Sun, giving it the energy to shine. This type of action also occurs in radioactive decay (atoms spontaneously shed energy and subatomic particles).
✔️This force works on the smallest distance scales, another 1,000 times smaller than the strong force. It is about a million times weaker than the strong force, too, though it is still considerably stronger than gravity.
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Which force illuminates our houses?
The answer to this question is electromagnetic force or electromagnetism.
It includes both electricity and magnetism, which are intertwined — a moving electric field produces a magnetic field, and vice versa.
Light carries this force, which illuminates our houses at night, keeps electrons in orbit around atomic nuclei, and allows chemical compounds to form.
Like gravity, the strength of electromagnetism drops off with the square of the distance between objects and works at infinite range. However, it only comes into play for charged objects, and whether it attracts or repels depends on the charges of each.
While stronger than gravity, this force is often balanced out in large objects by the equal numbers of positive and negative charges that form neutral atoms. For example Earth has a magnetic field due to electric currents in its liquid core, but Earth itself is electrically neutral.
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What are the four fundamental forces of nature that govern everything that happens in the universe?
For centuries, scientists have been trying to describe the forces that describe interactions in the universe on the largest and smallest scales, from planets to particles.
Modern science believes that that there are four fundamental forces:
1️⃣ Gravitational Force – the weakest force; but has infinite range.
2️⃣ Weak Nuclear Force – the next weakest; but short range.
3️⃣ Electromagnetic Force – stronger, with infinite range.
4️⃣ Strong Nuclear Force – strongest; but short range.
ℹ️ There is speculation that in the very early Universe when temperatures were very high (the Planck Scale) all four forces were unified into a single force. Then, as the temperature dropped, gravitational force separated first and then the other three forces followed. The process of the forces separating from each other is called spontaneous symmetry breaking.
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