3611
Online museum and repository for historical and ancestral knowledge.
A depiction of the Welsh insurgent Owain Glyndwr (mounted) being confronted by English garrison troops outside Caernarfon castle, by Angus McBride (RIP: 1931-2007). 🏴
On September 16 of the year 1400, Welsh nobleman Owain, son of Gruffydd Fychan II (a.k.a. “Owain Glyndwr”) raised the flag of rebellion against England and proclaimed himself Prince of Powys. Glyndwr and the Welsh were goaded into rebellion by the English through incessant land-grabbing, oppression, and persecution. In the case of Glyndwr, it was an English lord named Reynold, baron Grey de Ruthyn, who constantly curried favor with the higher authorities to obtain grants that encroached on Glyndwr’s lands, then informed him too late of a royal muster for war against Scotland so that he could denounce him as a traitor. The rebellion was aided by France, Scotland, and the Duchy of Brittany, including with several landings of French troops and naval operations by Breton and Scottish allies. It lasted 15 years and England suffered several humiliating setbacks, such as at the battles of Mynydd Hyddgen (1401), Bryn Glas (1402), and Stalling Down (1403). Baron Grey de Ruthyn was captured by Glyndwr in 1402, as was Sir Edmund Mortimer at the Battle of Bryn Glas that same year. The former was ransomed by king Henry IV of England, but Mortimer was abandoned to his fate, causing him to renounce his allegiance to the king and join Glyndwr. The Welsh rebellion was eventually overwhelmed by England’s vast resources, finally being put down by the year 1415. But Glyndwr was never captured or killed, and died while hiding at an unknown location. It didn’t take long for legends of Owain’s return to spread throughout Wales. Like others before him, he became associated with prophecies of Y Mab Darogan (“The Foretold Son”), a future resurrected hero who will liberate Britain from English oppression on a day of final reckoning.
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Bronze jewelry from the grave of a Gallic nobleman found at the ancient settlement of Manching, in Bavaria, Germany; 2nd century B.C. 🇩🇪
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The last great victory of the Celtiberians: Battle of Krasny Bor; 9-13 February, 1943. 🇪🇸🇩🇪⚔️🇷🇺 Art by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau.
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🇲🇽 I recently got persuaded to take a vacation in Mexico. I was a bit apprehensive, thinking I would be conspicuous as the only white person in the heartland of the dangerous Jalisco New Generation (drug) Cartel. But to my surprise, several places we visited had huge numbers of local people who were of full or mostly European descent. People of mestizo (mixed race) background were definitely more numerous, but whites also seemed to make up a significant proportion, certainly more than I had imagined. I knew that whites existed in big cities like Monterrey and Guadalajara, but what was surprising was also finding large numbers of them in small villages out in the deep countryside (white Mexicans aren’t just urban rich kids; there’s also a fair amount of rural cowboy types - known locally as vaqueros or charros). This land was once conquered by Spaniards and named Nueva Galicia (New Gallaecia 🇪🇸). They colonized it extensively and founded cities that they named after specific places back home, such as Guadalajara and Compostela. We witnessed another thing there that surprised us: While staying in a small town, we heard a local band playing the tune Ausländer Raus. 😂 Apparently, even some Mexicanos want to save Europa. 😭
Pictured: Native pine-oak forests at the juncture between the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains and Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The only wildlife we saw were vultures - lots of them. But the region is inhabited by all sorts of things: Deer, eagles, mountain lions, coyotes, even jaguars. Rattlesnakes are also common and the locals often hunt and consume them for medicinal purposes.
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🏴 Welsh folklore tells of the prophesied return of Owain ap Thomas, a.k.a. “Lawgoch” (“Red-handed Owen”) at an appointed time in the far future, in order to liberate Britain from English tyranny. You can read the story of Owain here. It is said that Owain’s spirit lies sleeping in a cave somewhere in Snowdonia, awaiting the time of judgment, when he will rise up and lead the Britons to victory against their enemies. His red hand is a curious theme, as it also features prominently in Irish lore. It’s even the main component of the heraldry of the province of Ulster.
Pictured: Owain Lawgoch’s personal seal, featuring the arms of the Kingdom of Gwynedd with a horned sugarloaf helm. Found on a 1376 receipt for payment of wages for military services rendered to king Charles V of France.
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Close up image from the blade of an iron sword, which was unearthed near Port, in the canton of Bern, Switzerland; 1st century B.C.🇨🇭
Next to a personal seal, the smith engraved his name into the blade in the Greek alphabet: Корiсiос (Gaulish: “Corisios”). Compare to modern cyrillic Корисиос. Before the rise of the Roman empire in the west, the Greek alphabet was in use in parts of western Europe to render text in at least one native, non-Greek language. The popular notion, propagated by Greek and Roman historians, that Celts did not employ writing, is not entirely accurate. The ancient Celts preferred to keep their histories and traditions in memory —to be transmitted orally— rather than on paper. But writing was definitely employed for other purposes.
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Dunmail Raise, in Cumbria, England. 🏴🏴🏴
The cairn of Dunmail Raise stands atop a pass in the mountains of the English Lake District. Local folklore holds that it marks the spot where “Dunmail” —the “last king of Cumbria”— was killed in battle by the English and subsequently buried under a heap of stones. “Dunmail” is clearly a memory of king Dyfnwal ab Owain of Strathclyde (died AD 975), and the folk tradition recalls the invasion of king Edmund I of England (AD 939-946), which wrested Cumbria away from Strathclyde and ended with Dyfnwal’s sons tragically captured and brutally blinded by the English.
The tradition doesn’t exactly match history, which informs us that Dyfnwal was not killed in battle, but died of old age 30 years after Edmund’s invasion. Still, it seems to preserve to sentiments of the local Britons in the aftermath of the battle. The lore tells of some warriors who escaped the affray with Dunmail’s crown, climbing the mountains to hurl it into the depths of the Grisedale Tarn. There, it awaits the day of judgment, when Dunmail will come again to lead them. Every year their ghosts return, retrieve the crown and take it to Dunmail Raise, where they strike the cairn with their spears to see if it’s time. A voice from within the stones is then said to speak: “Not yet, not yet; wait a while, my warriors!”
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Kingdom of Strathclyde; maximum extent. 🏴🏴
During the early 10th century, the Brythonic Kingdom of Strathclyde —formerly Alt Clut— expanded to reach its maximum territorial extent, conquering parts of northern England from the Danish Kingdom of Jórvík (i.e. York), as well as parts of southern Scotland that hadn’t been under Alt Clut’s control for centuries (such as what’s now Dumfries & Galloway). The southern border reached to the river Eamont in Cumbria, so that after over two centuries of Anglian rule, the people of the region were once again incorporated into a Brythonic polity.
These southern conquests came about as a result of an alliance with the Anglo-Saxon queen Aethelflaed of Mercia. She and her brother king Edward of Wessex broke Danish power at the Battle of Tettenhall in the year AD 910. The entire Danish leadership was wiped out in this encounter, forcing the Danes of York to offer the kingship to the Norse-Gaelic Uí Ímair dynasty, who’d been living in Hebridean Scotland at the time. Strathclyde seems to have taken advantage of the situation to conquer a large swath of what had once been the larger Kingdom of Northumbria. Strathclyde continued to rule northern Cumbria until the year AD 945. By then, the alliance with England had been abandoned and Strathclyde had been teaming up with Scotland and the Uí Ímair. In that year, Strathclyde was invaded and ravaged by king Edmund I of England, who captured and blinded two sons of king Dyfnwal ab Owain of Strathclyde. Edmund took Cumbria and gave the rest of Strathclyde over to king Malcolm I of Scotland, perhaps to avoid conflict breaking out (again) between the two kingdoms. Strathclyde briefly recovered its independence, but continued to decline from then on: At some point —probably later that century— Galloway was taken over by Norse-Gaels, who formed a new polity there, and Strathclyde would ultimately be fully incorporated into Scotland by the early 11th century.
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These smaller, dark horse breeds are native to the north of the Iberian peninsula, and are believed to have existed for millenia. Pictured: Asturcón; native to Asturias and León. 🇪🇸
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Battle of the Sabis; 57 B.C. Art by Mark Churms. ⚜️🇫🇷🇧🇪⚔️🏳️
This battle pitted Julius Caesar’s massive army consisting of a whopping 8 legions (between 35,000 and 40,000 Roman soldiers + auxiliaries) against three Gallo-Belgic tribes: The Nervii, Viromandui, and Atrebates. The Romans had begun building a camp on a slope of a hill near the river Selle, probably near modern Saulzoir, France. The Gauls were concealed in ambush in the forest directly across the river. Having begun a skirmish with the Roman cavalry just outside the same forest, they suddenly charged uphill and caught the Roman army off guard. The Roman cavalry (including Numidians from north Africa) was quickly routed and Caesar scrambled to get his men into the fighting. On the Roman left, legions X and IX routed the Atrebates and then stifled a counterattack, going on to capture the Belgic camp. The Roman center (legions VIII and XI) had a harder fight against the Viromandui, but managed to push them back to the river, where the situation stabilized and the fighting was prolongued. The Roman right (legions XII and VII), however, was completely overcome by the Nervii and suffering severe casualties. All the centurions of Legio XII Fulminata were either killed or wounded and at least one standard was missing. Caesar himself was in this sector of the battlefield, trying desperately to recover the situation. Some of the Nervii had begun overrunning the camp. When the allied cavalry of the Gallic Treveri arrived, they thought the Roman situation was hopeless and quit the field without fighting. The Romans were saved by the timely arrival of legions XIII and XIV, who joined the fight and finally overwhelmed the Nervii. The latter fought to the last man, neither retreating nor surrendering. It’s unclear what happened to the Nervian leader Boduognatus; possibly he died in combat as he’s not mentioned again. The hostile tribes sent emissaries soon afterward to negotiate a surrender. The Germanic Atuatuci were supposed to have fought as allies of the Celts, but they arrived late and found the battle already concluded. They returned whence they’d come and were subsequently attacked and defeated by Caesar.
Caesar was extremely impressed by the gallantry and physical prowess of the Nervii, even saying that he thought of them as being like the heroes of old Greek legends. No doubt embarrassed by being nearly defeated by a tribal force mustered from a few small districts of Belgium and neighboring France, he inflated their numbers in his account of the battle, claiming he’d faced the impossible sum of 75,000 Celts. It’s more likely that the Gallic force that fought there was about a fifth of that size.
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Celtic bronze shield with a representation of what appears to be an African gazelle; 3rd century B.C. The shield’s exact provenance is unknown, but it’s thought to have come from somewhere in southern Germany. Now on display at the Landesmuseum Württemberg, in Stuttgart, Germany. 🇩🇪
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View over Loch Maree and Slioch with Caledonian pine-forest in the foreground, in Wester Ross, Scotland. 🏴
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Gold stater coin of the Gallo-Belgic Nervii tribe found near Ledringhem, in Nord, France; 1st century B.C. ⚜️🇫🇷🇧🇪
Obverse features a characteristic ‘epsilon’ type symbol of unknown significance; reverse features a stylized horse and the Gaulish word VIRO (“man”) in Latin script, perhaps short for a personal name.
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Tribal divisions of early medieval Ulster. 🇮🇪 Map by Dennis Walsh.
The oldest reckoned tribes of Ulster were the Cruithne, descendants of the Clanna Rudhraige of Ulster Cycle fame. As their name indicates, these peoples seem to have traced their origin to Scotland, although DNA evidence links them to Galloway and the Scottish Borders rather than to the Picts. They included the Dal nAraide of north Antrim, the Uí Echach Coba of Down and Armagh, and the Conaille Muirtheimne of Louth. Sharing the kingdom with them were the Dál Riata and Dál Fiatach. The latter competed with the Dál nAraide for the overkingship of Ulster, and were known as the ‘Ulaid’ or ‘bearded ones’. The province is thus, thought to have taken its name from them. The Dál Riata later went on to found a kingdom in Scotland. The Dál Fiatach and Dál Riata claimed descent from the Érainn people of Munster, but the compiled genetic data has not borne that out. Rather, the Y-chromosome lineage R-M222 is prevalent among them, just as among the Northern Uí Néill. R-M222 is common in Connacht and Scotland as well, which seems to bear out the historical record of the Uí Néill coming from Connacht and the Dál Riata colonizing Scotland in several waves (first Kintyre and Knappdale, then Galloway later on during the Viking period).
The Northern Uí Néill formed the Kingdom of In Fhochla (“The North”), a.k.a. Ailech. They included the ruling Cenél Conaill and Cenél nEogáin, as well as the Cenél Cairpre around Drumcliff and Sligo, the Cenél Lóegaire in Fermanagh, the Canél nEnda and Fir Maige Itha in east Donegal, and various others. They were the most powerful and truculent of all the peoples in Ireland. They dominated the neighboring Airgíalla, who were said to have also been of Connachta origin and to have conquered the greater part of Ulster during the 4th century AD. The prevalence of haplogroup R-Z3000 among the Airgíalla points to a Brythonic origin. Some of them also settled in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, attaching themselves to Dál Riata as allies. Among the Airgíalla we find peoples such as the Airthir, Uí Méith, Mughdhorna, Fir Li, Uí Thuirtri, Uí Fiachrach Arda Sratha, Uí Nadsluaig, and Uí Chremthainn (from whom were sprung the Fir Manach of Fermanagh). Among them there were also transplants of the Ciannachta of Meath, in county Derry. Over time, the Airgíalla were pushed eastward by their Uí Néill overlords, with some going over the Bann into Antrim, and others being pushed into an area largely coterminous with county Monaghan.
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Kingdoms of Early Medieval Scotland. 🏴
Seven Pictish kingdoms are known from a 9th century Irish poem in the Lebor Bretnach, titled Do Bunad Cruthnech (Old Irish: “Concerning Pictish Origins”). Some are mentioned in other sources or reflected in placenames that have survived to this day. The Pictish kingdoms were: Fidach (Strathearn & Menteith), Ath-Fhotla (Atholl & Gowrie), Fib (Fife), Circin (Angus & the Mearns), Cé (Mar, Buchan and parts of Banffshire), Foirtriu (Parts of Banff, Moray, most of Old Inverness-shire including the County of Nairn, Badenoch, Lochaber, Garmoran, Glenelg, and Easter Ross), and Cait (Sutherland, Caithness, Orkney and Shetland). Gaelic Dál Riata was coterminous with historical Argyll, although it included the southern Outer Hebrides, where there was also a settlement of the Irish Airgíalla people. It may have also expanded at a later point to include Skye, Wester Ross (which was historically called ‘North Argyll’, and not ‘Wester Ross’), and Lewis & Harris. By the late 7th century, most of the Brythonic peoples of southern Scotland had been conquered or otherwise incorporated into the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria. The only one that survived was Alt Clut, which emcompassed the historic regions of Lennox, Clydesdale, Renfrew, Cunninghame, and Kyle.
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Geneva, Switzerland.🇨🇭
Geneva (Gaulish: Genava; “river-mouth” - same etymology as that of Genoa, Italy) was originally a border fortress of the Gallic Allobroges people, built at the confluences of the Rhone and Arve rivers to guard the frontier against the warlike Helvetii. Over the course of history, events worked out such that in modern times, the city chose to become part of the Swiss confederacy. It was built to keep the Helvetians out, but ultimately became a Helvetian town.
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Irish prophecies exist that tell of an expected deliverer who will drive the English out of Ireland. 🇮🇪
These prophecies speak of Aodh Eangach (“Aodh the pennoned one”), and state that he will appear “in the mountains of Patrick” (pictured: Croagh Patrick, in county Mayo, Ireland), before leading the Irish people to complete victory over their oppressors. Much like the Welsh Owain Lawgoch, this future Irish hero was described as being red-handed (source: Dáithí Ó hÓgáin, Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition). The red-hand of Irish tradition is usually associated with Ulster and the Cruithne hero Conall Cernach, who was said to have imprinted his severed hand on a banner after having avenged his friend, Cú Chulainn. On the other hand, Aodh Eangach’s origin in Connacht —specifically Croagh Patrick— might possibly indicate a notion of him being the resurrected Patrick.
The Anglo-Welsh priest Gerald of Wales mentioned these prophecies in chapter XXXIII of his 1189 work De Expugnatio Hibernica (Latin: “On the Conquest of Ireland”). He attributed them to four Irish saints: Patrick, Columba, Berchán, and Moling. The original sources are missing, so Gerald’s description is second hand. He cites Berchán specifically in describing Aodh as descending from the mountains of Patrick and attacking an English fort in Offaly. His account thus indicates that these Irish prophets had foretold the English invasion and conquest long before a Norman knight had ever set foot on the island. Later sources that spoke of Aodh Eangach included the 13th century bard Giolla Brighde mac Con Midhe and the anonymous Flann File. Throughout the medieval period, numerous Irish leaders were thought to have possibly been a fulfillment of the prophecy of Aodh Eangach, including kings Cathal Crobhdearg (1153-1224), Áedh Ua Conchobair (1224-8), and Áedh na nGall (1265-74) of Connacht, as well as the celebrated Aodh Ruadh Ua Domhnaill (1572-1602) of Tyrconnell. There was even an incident in 1214, recorded in the Annals of Loch Cé, of a man who claimed to be the expected deliverer but was rejected as a fraud.
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🇮🇪 How’s the weather in Ireland?
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I wish to clarify something here. When I display this 🇬🇧 version of the flag of Ulster, it is not an endorsement of the Unionist cause. I just don’t have another version (i.e. like the more historical yellow one shown here) in the emoji pack (which someone else created, not me). I am not a unionist (should be abundantly obvious but apparently not, since a person with an Ulster flag just left the channel). And I will repeat what I’ve said before that the extremely antiquated mindset of Protestant-vs-Catholic that has fueled conflict in Northern Ireland is grounded in false equivalence and false dichotomy fallacies; illogical and emotional thinking that enables the powerful to divide-and-conquer. In case anyone’s confused as to my personal stance, I’ll be clear: I reject enmity between Catholics and Protestants and I oppose foreign occupation of any and all Celtic peoples and lands. If I can find a better version of the Ulster flag, I’ll use that instead… Actually, I’m just not going to use that ever again to avoid confusion. Thank you all for your attention to this matter.
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Modern digital reconstruction of a Miraveche-Monte Bernorio type short-sword. 🇪🇸 Based on examples found at the Celtiberian necropolis of Miraveche.
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All throughout the Isles and the ages, this type of prophetic lore —involving the prophesied return of a certain Celtic hero who will drive out and destroy the English in a future day of reckoning— is recurrent. In the coming days, starting tomorrow, we’ll go through these one by one.
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Iron short-sword with characteristic curved quillions, found in the Celtiberian necropolis of Miraveche, in Burgos province, Spain; 5th or 4th century B.C. 🇪🇸
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Bronze helmet from a chieftain’s grave near the ancient Gallic mining-town of Dürrnberg-Hallein, in Salzburg state, Austria; 4th century B.C. 🇦🇹
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Caballo Losino, comarca de Merindades; Burgos. 🇪🇸
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Regio Dunutinga: Dentdale, in Yorkshire Dales National Park; Cumbria, England. 🏴🏴
Regio Dunutinga, or Dunoding, is mentioned in the Life of St. Wilfrid as a short-lived Brythonic kingdom in northern England. Territorially, it seems to have corresponded to the later district of Craven, which covered parts of Lancashire, North Yorkshire, and Cumbria. It took its name from its founder, Dunod Bwr (“Dunod the Fat”), who was a descendant of the renowned Pabo Post Prydain (“Pabo the Pillar of Britain”). Pabo had been a prince of Ebrauc who ruled a lordship in the Pennines and apparently gained fame defending Britain from Pictish raiders. He (Pabo) and many of his descendants ended up either exiled to Wales and/or choosing to follow monastic vocations there. Dunod’s inherited lordship seems to have become a separate kingdom after Ebrauc was destroyed by the Angles at the Battle of Caer Greu in AD 580. He was also said to have been present at the Battle of Arfderydd, seven years earlier. Dunod was also likely the father of the famous Welsh bard Aneirin Gwodrydd (“Of Flowing Verse”).
After king Urien of Rheged was assassinated in the midst of a war against Anglian invaders, Dunod attacked the new king of Rheged, Owain, doing battle against him and his brother Pascent. The struggle for supremacy led to the ruin of the Brythonic north, greatly lamented in the poetry of Llywarch Hen, a bard and exiled prince of Rheged. Dunod’s death is recorded by the Annals of Wales in the year AD 595. His short-lived kingdom of Dunoding is thought to have been one of the early conquests of the Anglian king Aethelfrith.
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Kingdoms of Northern Britain; late 6th century. 🏴🏴🏴
Sub-Roman northern Britain was known as Yr Hen Ogledd (Welsh: “The Old North”). The Brythonic kingdoms of Rheged, Ebrauc, Elmet (not shown), Dunoding (not shown), and Bryneich were ruled by dynasties that traced their descent to king Coel Hen of Ebrauc. In the case of Bryneich, it had formerly been a southern extension of the Kingdom of Gododdin, but was broken away and brought into the Coeling network. It later replaced its ruling dynasty with an Anglian one, becoming the Kingdom of Bernicia (later Northumbria). The short-lived Kingdom of Caer Wenddoleu was founded by Gwenddoleu, son of Ceidio, an exiled prince of Ebrauc. It was destroyed —and Gwenddolau killed— by the joint armies of Ebrauc and Alt Clut at the Battle of Arfderydd around AD 573. Ebrauc was in turn destroyed by Anglian invaders at the Battle of Caer Greu about seven years later. The dynasties of Alt Clut, Nofant, and Calchfynydd traced their descent to king Ceretic Guletic of Alt Clut. Those of Calchfynydd ended up also replacing the original ruling family of Gododdin. Rheged was the dominant power in northern England before being torn apart by civil war in the 590s, following the assassination of king Urien, son of Cynfarch. The Angles capitalized on this to take over much of northern England and southern Scotland, aided by the natives of both Bryneich and Rheged, the latter having been forced to make an alliance with them in order to defend against the attacks of their fellow Britons. Rheged eventually merged into Northumbria and also helped it destroy Gododdin in the 630s AD.
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Who were the pre-Indo-European peoples of western Europe? 🇪🇸🇵🇹⚜️🇫🇷🇮🇹 Images 1 & 2: Sardinian people; image 3: Portuguese couple; image 4: Basque man from Spain.
Prior to the arrival of Indo-European speaking Western Steppe Herders, the majority of western, central, and southern Europe was inhabited by what are called Anatolian Neolithic Farmers. As the name suggests, they are said to have inhabited present day western Turkey and to have begun populating Europe in the 7th millennium B.C; introducing agriculture and inter-marrying with the native hunter-gatherer population. The most prevalent Y-chromosome lineage among them was haplogroup G2a, suggesting a close affinity with populations of the western Caucasus (like Georgians, et al), rather than with modern Turks, who are the result of various other waves of migration that populated Anatolia in later centuries.
In western and southern Europe, the descendants of these people survived with distinct civilizations and languages, whereas in other parts of Europe they were largely absorbed into the cultures of the Indo-European peoples that came to dominate and mingle with them. These late-surviving cultures were the Iberian and Tartessian civilizations of southern and eastern Spain and southern Portugal, the Basques and Aquitanians in Spain and France, and the Sardinians (the island of Sardinia is now part of Italy). Data compiled by modern linguists suggests that all these people spoke closely related non-Indo-European languages, i.e. Iberian was similar to Basque and Aquitanian while Paleo-Sardinian was also a related language, though perhaps more distantly so. Paleogenetic data shows that the Iberian and Aquitanian peoples intermarried heavily with Celts, starting as far back as the middle Bronze Age, so that even in antiquity their genetic makeup was typically between 15 to 25% Celtic. To be clear, this was the case not only with the Hispano-Celtic peoples, but also the non-Indo-European Iberians and Basques. Sardinia on the other hand, has never received as much gene flow as other parts of Europe. To this day, the genetic makeup of Sardinians is the most like that of ‘Old Europe’.
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Clay pot with an engraved image of a deer, found within the central sanctuary area in the ruins of the Gallic town of Manching, in Bavaria, Germany; 2nd century B.C. 🇩🇪
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City of Steel; Toledo, Spain. 🇪🇸
Toletum was first recorded as a city of the Iberian Carpetani people. The Roman consul Marcus Fulvius Nobilior besieged the city in 193 B.C; defeating an army of the Vettones people which had come to the city’s aid. The city was taken and the local ruler, Hilernus, was made prisoner. Nobilior’s son, Quintus, later earner infamy for his humiliating defeats at the hands of the Celtiberians during the Second Celtiberian War (154-151 B.C.) Toledo went on to be the capital of Spain on several occasions, most notably during the time of Visigothic rule (AD 418-712), when Iberia was even known as the Kingdom of Toledo. The city was also the main ecclesial centre of the peninsula, with numerous church councils held there. An infamous act of treachery by certain hostile ethnic minority elements who opened the gates of Toledo resulted in the city’s easy capture by Muslim invaders and the massacre of a large number of Visigothic nobles in the year 712 AD. The city would eventually be retaken by the native Christian Spaniards in the year 1085 AD, under the leadership of king Alfonso VI of León. The city prospered due to Christian immigration from other parts of Spain and even France. It came to hold capital status again in the 16th century before Madrid took this role. Toledo also became renowned for its high quality steel and weapons manufacturing during the period when Spain had the most powerful and capable military in the world (16th & 17th centuries).
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Pussy, in Savoie; France. ⚜️🇫🇷
The town was first recorded in 1170 with the name Pusiaco. The name is actually derived from a Latin word —Pusus— meaning “A little boy” (still a weird name for a village).
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