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Here are some notes about MOSFETs:
Structure
A MOSFET is a four-terminal device with terminals called the source, drain, gate, and body. The body is usually connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal device in appearance.
Working
A MOSFET works by varying the width of a channel where charge carriers flow. The width of the channel is controlled by the voltage applied to the gate, which is located between the source and the drain.
Uses
MOSFETs are used in both analog and digital circuits. They are the most common type of transistor because they use less power, have higher switching speeds, and can be miniaturized easily.
Small-signal analysis
In small-signal analysis, a small AC signal is applied on top of the DC bias voltage. The resulting output AC voltage is amplified based on the slope of the transfer characteristic at the bias point.
Drain punch-through
Drain punch-through can lead to leakage or breakdown between the source and the drain. This can cause loss of gate control.
🔺 Basic electronics cheat sheet
A small A4-format cheat sheet with the most basic information from the electrical engineering course which includes basic electric components and formulas.
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Voltage Divider
A voltage divider produces an output voltage that's a fraction of its input voltage, determined by the two resistors R1 and R2.
The output voltage is determined by Vo=Vi(R2/R1+R2).
Resistor dividers are often used to generate reference voltages or as level shifters; their high impedance means that attempting to draw significant current from them will cause the voltage to vary.
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Ammeter
The meter uses for measuring the current is known as the ammeter. The current is the flow of electrons whose unit is ampere. Hence the instrument which measures the flows of current in ampere is known as ampere meter or ammeter.
The ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance. But practically the ammeter has small internal resistance. The measuring range of the ammeter depends on the value of resistance.
The capital alphabet A represents the ammeter in the circuit.
By the current, the ammeter categorises into two types.
AC ammeter
DC ammeter
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What is a Multimeter?
A multimeter is a handy device that can be used to test, troubleshoot, and diagnose all manner of electrical components and devices [source: Fitzgerald]. Multimeters are preferred by professionals and amateurs alike for their ability to accurately provide a number of critical electrical measurements, including:
DC voltage
AC voltage
Resistance
Current
Multimeters are incredibly versatile instruments widely used in various fields for diverse practical applications. Here are some of the key practical uses of a multimeter:
Home electrical repairs: Multimeters are invaluable for diagnosing and fixing common electrical problems in household appliances, wiring, and outlets [source: Bennett]. They can identify the cause of issues like power outages, short circuits, and faulty appliances.
Automotive troubleshooting: In automotive repair, multimeters are used to diagnose electrical issues in vehicles. They can check battery voltage, alternator function, and the integrity of wiring and fuses.
Electronics testing and repair: Hobbyists and professionals use multimeters to assemble, test, and repair electronic devices like radios, computers, and TVs. They check components like resistors, capacitors, and transistors for functionality.
Industrial maintenance: In industrial settings, multimeters are essential for maintaining and troubleshooting electrical systems and machinery. They help in ensuring that motors, sensors, and control systems are operating correctly.
Educational purposes: In educational environments, multimeters are used to teach students about electricity and electronics. They offer a hands-on way to learn about basic electrical concepts and circuit analysis.
Telecommunication systems: They are used for maintaining and troubleshooting telecommunication equipment, ensuring proper signal transmission and identifying faults in the network.
Solar power systems: Multimeters help in installing and maintaining solar panels and related equipment. They ensure the panels generate the expected voltage and that the connections are secure.
HVAC systems: In heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, multimeters are used to check electrical components like thermostats, heating elements, and motors.
Research and development: Engineers and researchers use multimeters in the development of new electronic devices and systems, for prototyping and testing.
Quality control in manufacturing: In manufacturing, multimeters are employed to ensure products meet electrical specifications and standards.
Basic formulas in electronics that everyone should know:
👉🏻Ohm's law: This is the fundamental relationship between electric current, voltage, and resistance. It states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and inversely proportional to its resistance. Mathematically, it is expressed as I = V/R, where I is the current in amperes, V is the voltage in volts, and R is the resistance in ohms.
👉🏻Kirchhoff's current law: This law states that the sum of the currents entering a junction in a circuit must be equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction. Mathematically, it is expressed as the sum of all the currents entering a junction equals the sum of all the currents leaving that junction.
👉🏻Kirchhoff's voltage law: This law states that the sum of the voltage drops in a closed loop must equal the sum of the voltage rises in that loop. Mathematically, it is expressed as the sum of all the voltage drops around a closed loop equals the sum of all the voltage rises around that loop.
👉🏻Power formula: This formula relates the power dissipated in a circuit to the voltage and current flowing through it. It states that the power P in watts is equal to the product of the voltage V in volts and the current I in amperes. Mathematically, it is expressed as P = VI.
👉🏻Capacitance formula: This formula relates the capacitance C of a capacitor to its physical dimensions and the type of dielectric material used. It states that the capacitance is equal to the ratio of the charge Q stored on the capacitor to the voltage V across it. Mathematically, it is expressed as C = Q/V.
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MCB working details
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Electrical engineering WhatsApp channel link 🖇️ 👉👉 join fast ⏩ https://whatsapp.com/channel/0029Va9yl7oEKyZR01510E1U
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📔 Electronic schematic cheat sheet
This cheat sheet would be very useful to those trying to study electronic components. It can be printed as a poster or as a classic A4 cheat sheet. Would be very useful for reading electric schematics.
#cheatsheet #electronics
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The Function and Applications for Bipolar Junction Transistors
My intent here is to focus as exclusively as possible on the practical function and application of bipolar transistors, rather than to explore the quantum world of semiconductor theory. Discussions of holes and electrons are better left to another chapter in my opinion. Here I want to explore how to use these components, not analyze their intimate internal details. I don’t mean to downplay the importance of understanding semiconductor physics, but sometimes an intense focus on solid-state physics detracts from understanding these devices’ functions on a component level. In taking this approach, however, I assume that the reader possesses a certain minimum knowledge of semiconductors: the difference between “P” and “N” doped semiconductors, the functional characteristics of a PN (diode) junction, and the meanings of the terms “reverse biased” and “forward biased.” If these concepts are unclear to you, it is best to refer to earlier chapters in this book before proceeding with this one.
BJT Layers
A bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer “sandwich” of doped (extrinsic) semiconductor materials, (a and c) either P-N-P or N-P-N (b and c ). Each layer forming the transistor has a specific name, and each layer is provided with a wire contact for connection to a circuit. The schematic symbols are shown in the figure (a) and (c).
BJT transistor: (a) PNP schematic symbol, (b) layout (c) NPN schematic symbol, (d) layout
Figure 1. BJT transistor: (a) PNP schematic symbol, (b) layout, (c) NPN schematic symbol, and (d) layout.
The functional difference between a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor is the proper biasing (polarity) of the junctions when operating.
Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current regulators. In other words, transistors restrict the amount of current passed according to a smaller, controlling current. The main current that is controlled goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to collector, depending on the type of transistor it is (NPN or PNP, respectively). The small current that controls the main current goes from base to emitter or from emitter to base, once again depending on the kind of transistor it is (NPN or PNP, respectively). According to the standards of semiconductor symbology, the arrow always points in the direction of the current flow.
Figure 2. The direction of the small, controlling current and the large controlled current for (a) a PNP and (b) an NPN transistor.
Bipolar Transistors Contain Two Types of Semiconductor Material
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the main flow of current through them takes place in two types of semiconductor material: P and N, as the main current goes from emitter to collector (or vice versa). In other words, two types of charge carriers—electrons and holes—comprise this main current through the transistor.
As you can see, the controlling current and the controlled current always mesh together through the emitter wire, and their currents flow in the direction of the transistor’s arrow. This is the first and foremost rule in the use of transistors: all currents must be going in the proper directions for the device to work as a current regulator. The small, controlling current is usually referred to simply as the base current because it is the only current that goes through the base wire of the transistor. Conversely, the large, controlled current is referred to as the collector current because it is the only current that goes through the collector wire. The emitter current is the sum of the base and collector currents, in compliance with Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
No current through the base of the transistor shuts the transistor off like an open switch and prevents current through the collector. A base current turns the transistor on like a closed switch and allows a proportional amount of current through the collector. The collector current is primarily limited by the base current, regardless of the amount of voltage available to push it.
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A MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET) that uses a metal-oxide gate electrode to control the flow of electrons between the source and drain. MOSFETs are commonly used in many different types of electronic circuits and devices, including computers, smartphones, and other electronic devices.
👉🏻MOSFETs are known for their high switching speed, low power consumption, and high input impedance. They can be used as switches, amplifiers, or to control the flow of current in a circuit. MOSFETs are typically classified as either n-channel or p-channel, depending on the type of semiconductor material used.
👉🏻MOSFETs are widely used in many applications due to their versatility and high performance. They are often preferred over other types of transistors, such as bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), due to their low power consumption and high switching speed.
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