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#ielts #toefl #gre #english_vocabulary #english
Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
nut | nutter
a crazy or strange person
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
turn out (1)
to make a light go off
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Word of the Day
cosmopolitan
Definition: (adjective) Pertinent or common to the whole world.
Synonyms: ecumenical, general, universal, worldwide.
Usage: World peace is an issue of cosmopolitan import.
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Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
savvy
awareness of how to succeed in competitive pursuits such as politics or business
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
bring out (2)
to make a quality in someone or something show itself
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Word of the Day
cerebral
Definition: (adjective) Involving intelligence rather than emotions or instinct.
Synonyms: intellectual.
Usage: She preferred to take a cerebral approach to the problem and sat for hours in deep contemplation.
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Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
virus
a harmful computer program that can spread from one machine to another
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
note down
If you note down something, you write it on a piece of paper or in a notebook.
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Word of the Day
arbiter
Definition: (noun) One chosen or appointed to judge or decide a disputed issue.
Synonyms: arbitrator, umpire.
Usage: In peace, from their want of confidence in each other, they will entrust the guardianship of the state to mercenaries and their general, who will be an arbiter between them.
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Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
pissed (2)
angry, annoyed
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22 Words
Coupon Club: Amazon Promo Codes (Updated Daily)
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Idiom of the Day
Hell and half of Georgia
A great distance or area; a huge amount of space. Primarily heard in US. Watch the video
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Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
dis | diss
to show disrespect to someone by saying or doing something insulting
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the uprising city states in the region, other factors could also have led to the rather late arrival of domesticated donkeys. Both the Assyrian and the Mesopotamian Empires made great use of donkey caravans for transporting goods through regions lacking suitable waterways (cf. Algaze 2008) and as depictions in Persepolis show, the Achaemenids were surely acquainted with the animal. But the question of when and how the animal gained popularity in the eastern areas of the Persian Empire is not easily answered. Iranian philological and linguistic evidence seems to reflect a rather diffuse origin of the name for the beast during the Old Iranian period. Only in Middle Iranian, sources of which are dated between the fourth century BCE and the tenth century CE, we find clear evidence for an actual animal called xar ‘donkey’. In southern Iran, donkeys became possibly known through contacts with Mesopotamia in the third millennium BCE, when they were used to connect regions which were difficult to access by boat (Clutton-Brock 1992: 65). Despite Potts (2011) being convinced that donkeys were well known, if not domesticated, on the Iranian Plateau already by the fourth millennium BCE, most evidence seems to support the idea that donkeys spread to northern Iran along with the expansion of the Old Assyrian Empire. It is important to notice that regions of northern Iran were used as breeding centres for donkeys with indigenous wild Asian asses (Goulder 2018: 84). According to the cuneiform manuscripts of Kültepe-Kanesh, a trade hub in modern Anatolia, donkeys were excessively used under the Old Assyrian reign during the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000–1750 BCE). An extensive caravan business called for good donkeys which were bred in the capital Aššur. A special breed of donkey is often mentioned in the texts: the so-called ‘black donkey’ (emāru[m]/imēru[m]) which is identified with the modern Damascus ass, a large, strong and dark-haired breed (Atici 2014: 244–245). Donkeys were often sold for good money at the caravan’s destination if the goods to be transported back to the capital required less donkey power (Barjamovic 2018: 152). In this way, donkeys might also have found their way to the Iranian plateau, where they possibly became known as the ‘black’ variety of asses in contrast to the local wild asses with which they could be interbred to produce “donkey-likes” (PIr. *khara-tara-), i.e. mules or hinnies (Kümmel 2017: 279). However, the PIr. word *kh-er-o- meaning ‘dark’ as suggested in section 3.6 “A new etymology for YAv. xɑrɑ-?” could also be a translation from Old Assyrian ṣa-lá-mu-um ‘black’, which was used to describe the prized black donkey (Zarins 1978: 4). Yet again, the fact that donkeys were brought to northern Iran in order to be crossbred with local wild asses and possibly also horses could have triggered an association with a mythical beast of fertility after which the strange equid was finally named (see section 3.1 “Commentary”).
It should be stressed that in Iran, like in China, the donkey was not the primary equid, but a “latecomer”. As such, it was constantly compared to the horse which played a central role in many societies east of the Zagros mountains. Upon its introduction, the nobility might have found pleasure in the animal as a ‘rare breed’, but there was no cultural background which would have given the donkey a ritual, cultural and social role comparable to the one it enjoyed in West Asia (cf. Greenfield et al. 2012). Thus, donkeys were destined to become animals of the common people and easily gained a bad reputation or even developed into negative symbols as soon as they became more available. This supposedly happened on the Iranian plateau56 as well as later in China and possibly in many regions in between (cf. Shirasaka and Watanabe 2019). Various vernacular variants for the donkey’s name might well have led to multiple written forms in Iranian literature, thereby making its etymology extremely d[...]
Word of the Day
Word of the Day: biodiversity
This word has appeared in 212 articles on NYTimes.com in the past year. Can you use it in a sentence?
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Idiom of the Day
cast in concrete
Firmly or permanently established; not subject to change; unalterable. Watch the video
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Wordsmith.org: Today's Word
avuncular
adjective: Kind, friendly, and helpful, like an uncle, especially in a benevolent or indulgent way.
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Word of the Day
Word of the Day: holistic
This word has appeared in 176 articles on NYTimes.com in the past year. Can you use it in a sentence?
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Idiom of the Day
in bits and pieces
In many small fragments. Watch the video
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Wordsmith.org: Today's Word
senescent
adjective: 1. Growing old; aging. 2. Deteriorating or decaying with the passage of time.
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Word of the Day
Word of the Day: exodus
This word has appeared in 281 articles on NYTimes.com in the past year. Can you use it in a sentence?
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Idiom of the Day
be in bad with (someone)
To be disliked or out of favor with someone; to be in trouble with someone. Watch the video
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Wordsmith.org: Today's Word
exuberant
adjective: 1. Overflowing with energy, enthusiasm, and joy. 2. Plentiful; productive; growing abundantly.
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22 Words
Coupon Club: Amazon Promo Codes (Updated Daily)
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
feel for
If you feel for someone, you have sympathy for them or feel sad because they are suffering.
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Word of the Day
valiant
Definition: (adjective) Having or showing valor.
Synonyms: valorous.
Usage: The hostages made a valiant attempt to overtake their captors and paid dearly for their bravery.
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ifficult to track.
At least since the reign of the Achaemenids (550–330 BCE), donkeys maintained a certain importance as beasts of burden.57 As it can be seen in Achaemenid administrative documents, donkeys were used in Bactria, which means that they had been established as beasts of burden in Eastern Iran by the fourth century BCE (see section 3.2 “Achaemenid Aramaic”). It is possible that the fall of the Achaemenid Empire conditioned a stronger eastward orientation among some of the former satrapies, which could have facilitated the spread of domestic donkeys to the western end of the Tarim Basin.
The late borrowings seen in Tocharian could be in line with the comparatively late introduction of donkeys to the area, since people living on the northern rim of the basin relied on the Tarim River for east-west transport, while on the southern routes travel on foot, camel, or horseback was more common. The fact that the Toch. B word for ‘mule’ is the only donkey-related word which can be identified as a loanword from Old Iranian (*atswa– ‘horse’) beautifully shows that mules were probably first to arrive in the Tarim Basin, i.e. before their donkey parents, since they were more resistant against the adverse conditions on the passageways through the Pamir mountains (see section 3.2 “Tocharian”). On the southern rim of the Tarim Basin, however, the settlements were more dispersed and not connected by a direct river system. The piedmont region had to be traversed on foot or on camel back to travel between the villages nestling around the meltwater streams flowing from the Kūnlún mountain range. It was probably in this region that the donkey was an exceptionally welcome domestic beast, as it enabled the extension of agricultural activities as well as better interconnection – in a similar way as it had enabled the flourishing of the Late Uruk culture three millennia before.
We need an adjective that stresses the manifest, manifold virtues of the donkey. If we had one I would apply it many times over to the authors of this outstanding collaborative article, who have worked so hard, so long, and so meticulously on it. We owe them a great debt, as we do to the donkeys who have served humanity dutifully for more than seven millennia — but don't push this admirable (to my mind) creature too far! Suggested readings
* "So many words for 'donkey'" (3/17/23)
* "'Little competent donkey'" (9/18/20)
* "Joshua Whatmough and the donkey" (9/1/09)
* "Flip Donkey Doodleplunk?" (2/22/18) —
* "Dialectology in 2020" (10/14/20) — "donkey's dick" (in the comments)
* "Donkeys in Cyberspace!" (6/9/08)
* "Wild Ass Homestay" (1/30/11)
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ce, it appears that the domestic donkey started to gain recognition by the second half of the third century BCE. As it was still considered a rare animal which was gifted to the northern states of the Eastern Zhōu realm, it was primarily held in stables as a symbol of wealth. This probably started to change during the reign of the Qín dynasty after it unified the former Zhōu states and expanded its area of influence northwards. The donkey was presumably present and used in the Tarim Basin as beast of burden to transport goods between the oasis settlements since the first millennium BCE.53 While the donkey might have been less suitable than the Bactrian camel to cross the desert regions, it was the perfect beast to transport heavy loads across the piedmont regions along the rims of the Tarim Basin where various semi-nomadic settlements thrived. Furthermore, it also facilitated the crossing of the surrounding mountain ranges, the Kūnlúnshān 崑崙山 in the south and the Tiānshān 天山 in the north. Apart from their role in transport, the advantages of donkeys in agriculture should not be forgotten (see e.g. Brodie 2008). Donkeys were ideal for everyday transport of water, supplies, and people to the fields, as they were easy to control, and played a critical role in harvest efficiency since they could also be used as draft animals54 to pull heavy carts. Societies of the Tarim Basin originally were cattle breeders (see e.g. Yu Chong et al. 2022), but with the proceeding aridification it must have been exceedingly difficult to maintain the herds (cf. Hinsch 1988: 138). While cattle are strong and can serve as powerful draft animals, they need an ample amount of water and time to ruminate. In contrast, donkeys profit from a faster fibre consumption and the ability to retain water in their bodies for an extended period of time (De Santis et al. 2021: 4). The passage about the practice of the Kingdom of Wūchá to raise only donkeys but no cattle reflects this earlier change from cattle to donkey breeding which took over in the region around the Tarim Basin after the donkey had been introduced. As the use of donkeys spread through the Tarim Basin, people living in the vicinity of the Héxī Corridor, among them the Róng herdsmen providing the First Emperor of Qín with what might have been mules (see Part I section 2.3), were among the first to introduce the new equid to China. It is important to notice that by the third century BCE horses were still more common than donkeys in the Héxī region, thus hybrid breeders were probably more likely to let their rare donkey jack sire some horse mares, which would give birth to mules, than to endanger some precious donkey jennies by trying to breed hinnies.55 The exceptional status of hinnies, possibly reflected in the ‘special donkey’ term jùxū 駏驉 (see section 4.3), might be connected with this initial rarity of the hybrid, whereas mules became a common sight in the Chinese heartland much sooner.
By the time the Xiōngnú confederation formed in response to the Qín expansion to the north (Di Cosmo 1994: 1116), donkeys and mules were bred alongside camels, especially in dry regions, and thus became known to Chinese historiographers as ‘special domestic animals of the Xiōngnú’, even though the peoples using the beasts did not necessarily identify as Xiōngnú themselves. Finally, when Hàn Emperor Wǔ attacked the Xiōngnú, he learnt about the effectiveness of donkeys, and when the southern Xiōngnú accepted their formal submission to China in 51 BCE, the sturdy beast of burden had definitely found its place among the domestic animals of the Central Plains. But how did donkeys arrive in the Tarim Basin? Considering that the donkey had been a popular animal in West Asia since its first domestication before the third millennium BCE, it is noteworthy that it only gained popularity on the eastern side of the Pamir Mountains by the 1st millennium BCE. While its introduction to the Tarim Basin might be connected to an increase of mobility between[...]
